Any study of Scripture cannot be conducted haphazardly, nor should it be assumed that the context and purpose of any given book of the Bible is readily understood. Therefore, a general survey of Jonah’s context, the major themes that are developed throughout the book, as well as identifying the purpose and structure of the book is a necessity that cannot be overlooked and must take place before jumping into the text itself.
Context
A major difference between a modern reader and the original audience is the understanding of the book’s context. Jonah did not need to paint a picture of the context in which he wrote because his audience was living that context right along with him. The modern reader, on the other hand, is likely ignorant of these important details and is therefore somewhat handicapped when approaching Jonah’s prophecy. When addressing Jonah’s context, we must work along two foundational lines: (1) The context of history that seeks to understand the person of Jonah and the world in which he lived and (2) the biblical context which seeks to understand what part the prophecy of Jonah contributes to the whole of the canon.
The Historical Context of Jonah
As strange as it may seem to say, Jonah was a factual historical figure who lived in a real place and was a part of actual events. It is the duty of the biblical student to discover both the facts and the significance of the man and his surroundings so that he might rightly divide the word of God.
The Man: Jonah
The prophet Jonah is introduced simply as “Jonah the son of Amittai” (יוֹנָה בֶן־אֲמִתֵּי – 1:1). This identification specifies this Jonah from other Jonahs (the one who was Amittai’s son) but is also supposed to provide enough information that the future readers of Scripture (1 Pet. 1:12) to correctly identify him. This is not a difficult task in that the only other reference to any Jonah in the Old Testament is found in 2 Kings 14:25, another Jonah son of Amittai (יוֹנָה בֶן־אֲמִתַּי). It is safe to assume that the Jonah of 2 Kings 14 is the same Jonah in view here.
This observation is extremely helpful in identifying when Jonah lived (and thus wrote this prophecy), where Jonah was from, and to whom Jonah ministered. 2 Kings 14:25 is part of a brief narrative that describes the reign of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel (2 Kings 14:23-29). Not to be confused with Jeroboam the son of Nebat (who caused Israel to sin – 1 Kings 12:20-33) who lived and reigned in the late 10th century BC (931-910), this Jeroboam (hereafter referred to as Jeroboam II) lived and reigned nearly 150 years later in the early 8th century BC (793-753). Some of Jeroboam II’s accomplishments, namely, the restoration of Israel’s border, was encouraged by Jonah’s prophetic ministry. The village of Gath-hepher, located in the territory of Zebulun, later to be known as the region of Galilee, marks Jonah as a resident and citizen of the northern kingdom of Israel. Thus, it seems conclusive that our Jonah lived during Jeroboam II’s reign, under his jurisdiction (in the northern kingdom), and had access (to at least some degree) to his court.
Names are an ever-important thing to consider within the Scriptures. Our Lord’s own name (“Jesus” = Ἰησοῦς) is not only important because of what it means (Yhwh saves – Matt. 1:21) but also because of others who had that name: Joshua (יֵשׁוּעַ/יֵהוֹשׁוּעַ). In a similar manner, “Jonah” (יוֹנָה) is a Hebrew equivalent to “John” (Ἰωάνης/Ἰωάννης/Ἰωνᾶς – cf. Matt. 16:17; Jn. 1:42) which literally means “dove”. The significance of “dove” in the Scriptures is little more difficult to make out. There is a sense in which the dove (יוֹנָה) is used as some sort of messenger or advanced scout in the aftermath of the flood (Gen. 8:8-12). The dove (יוֹנָה) is specifically named as an acceptable sacrifice for the poor of Israel who cannot afford a lamb (Lev. 5:7). The moan or the cooing of a dove is often used to illustrate the anguish of those under oppression or those waiting for salvation (Is. 38:14; 59:11). Hosea uses the term as a derision, speaking to Israel as a bunch of silly doves who lack a heart (Hos. 7:11). It could be that the significance of the prophet’s name does not focus on just one of these nuances but is a combination of several if not all of them. As a prophet, Jonah is a messenger who is acceptable to God. Even when preaching judgment, the prophets always have at least the implication of salvation. And as the narrative of Jonah reveals, the prophet does behave in a rather silly or simple-headed manner.
The Nation: Israel
As already stated, Jonah was a citizen of the northern kingdom of Israel, the nation that was formed by splitting away from Jerusalem, Judah, and the Davidic line of kings (1 Kings 13). Unlike the kingdom of Judah to the south, Israel never had a consistent line of kings, for as soon as a dominant warlord or general gained enough of a following, he would inevitably initiate a coup to place himself and his heirs on the throne. From Jonah’s perspective, the most recent coup was led by a man called Jehu (2 Kings 9-10) who annihilated the line of wicked Ahab yet failed to annihilate the apostate worship set up by Jeroboam I. Because of this failing, Yhwh limited Jehu’s dynasty to only four generations after him (2 Kings 10:30). Jeroboam II is the third of those four generations. Thus, it is not known precisely when or exactly what is going to happen, but what is certain is that shortly after Jeroboam’s reign, there will be a storm coming to Israel.
That coming storm would not have been a welcome, or even an obvious thing from the secular standpoint. One might argue that Israel is not nearly as wicked has she had been. After all, Baal worship had been done away with ever since Jehu came to power 80 years before. Militarily, it seemed that Yhwh favored the northern kingdom of Israel more so than the southern Davidic kingdom in that Israel has recently won great victories over enemies both foreign (2 Kings 14:25) and domestic (2 Kings 14:8-14). This was an economic, militaristic, and social high tide in Israel’s history. The borders that Jeroboam II extended (2 Kings 14:25) cut into Aramean territory to include Damascus in the north and across the Jordan in the east. Not since the days of Solomon has an Israelite king reigned over so much territory. If any nation seemed to be enjoying the blessings of Yhwh , it was the northern kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam II.
The Enemy: Assyria
It seems that to be a world power is to be an enemy of Israel. The three main foreign enemies of Israel in the Old Testament appear in order of their rise and fall from the world’s scene: Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon. In the days of Jeroboam and our Jonah, the world leader (in at least name) was Assyria. This becomes more relevant to the reader when it is realized that the Assyrian capital in the mid 8th century BC was the great city of Nineveh.
Assyria had been attempting to penetrate the west since 900 BC (150 years before Jonah’s time) with annual campaigns marching toward the setting sun. These westward strikes were a combination of successes and failures but steadily increased Assyrian controlled territory toward the Levant and were infamously known for their cruelty. The Assyrian policy of conquest was one of fear and brutality. Preferring to utilize troops on campaign rather than to garrison conquered nations, the Assyrians would use tactics designed to instantly strike fear into the hearts of their enemies and immediately sap all desire of resistance from their blood. The heads belonging to the elders and nobles of any given city would be severed and stacked in pyramids outside the city gate. People of interest would be impaled before the city walls. Men, women, and even children would be skinned alive before the onlookers who would systematically be deported and dispersed throughout the empire. For those living in the west (Israel, Judah, Aram, Tyre, Sidon, etc.), the big bad wolf was just over the eastern horizon and made no secret that he was coming for them.
From a divine point of view, Israel’s newfound success was because Yhwh took pity on the plight of His people, for they had no helper (2 Kings 14:26). In other words, Yhwh was, is, and always will be Israel’s helper. From an historical vantagepoint, Israel’s success under Jeroboam II was largely possible because of the weakness of the Assyrian Empire.
The time of Assyrian impotency was at its peak during the reign of Assur-dan III (772-755). With internal revolts, pressure from the west coming from Aram, and a four-year gap where no offensive campaigns were conducted suggests that this was a time of defensive positioning; Assyria was gasping for breath. To make matters worse, this was a time of plague and famine across the empire. The result was that the Assyria of Assur-dan III was a nation impoverished, weak, demoralized, and in toral disorder. In other words, God has perfectly orchestrated this moment as the time to send His prophet on a mission to Nineveh.
The Mission: ?
What Jonah’s mission from God to Nineveh consists of cannot be assumed. Because we are familiar with this book (likely the only one of the Minor Prophets we can make that claim of) we think we already understand the nuance and specifics of what God wants the prophet to do. Yet, the opening line of Jonah’s marching orders are rather ambiguous. The preposition עַל normally translated as “against” in v. 2 (…and cry against it…) has a wide range of meaning with several options that perfectly fit the context. Did Yhwh intend Jonah to cry to/toward Nineveh (proclaiming to its inhabitance)? Concerning Nineveh (proclaim with reference to Nineveh)? On account of Nineveh (proclaim because of something Nineveh has done)? The conclusion of the verse identifies why Jonah is to cry (because their wickedness has come up before Me), but the nature of his proclamation is not clear. In addition to this, Yhwh does not say at this point what Jonah is supposed to proclaim. There is no mention of the content of what he is to cry. Is it a message of judgment? Hope? Repentance? Restoration? The reader simply has no way of telling from Jonah 1:2 alone. And that is precisely the point.
At the end of the day, the book of Jonah is a darn good story. That is not to say that it is factually inaccurate or only a piece of legend. Far from it. It is part of the Biblical Canon and thus every bit as much of God-breathed scripture as the rest. What we mean is that it is written with brilliance as the narrative purposefully fails to reveal all the facts at first, leaving the “big reveal” for the conclusion as a grand finale. In other words, one must carefully read (or, in the case of the original audience, carefully listen to) Jonah and accept only the information the author divulges as that information is given. Let the story unfold as the author intended. Then, and only then, will the details of Jonah’s mission become apparent.
The Biblical Context of Jonah
The book of Jonah is found in a part of the Bible that is normally referred to as the “Minor Prophets” and what is known in the Hebrew canon simply as “The Twelve”. The canonical context of Jonah is tied to how this prophecy functions within this larger collection of prophecies. Yet, both Jonah and the Minor Prophets are not islands of revelation but serve as a part of a whole. There are themes, warnings, and promises that begin further back in the Old Testament; themes that these prophets allude to, assume, and develop.
The Canonical Context of Jonah
The discussion of how Jonah fits into the larger section known as the Minor Prophets is twofold. First, we must understand that the arrangement of the Minor Prophet (or The Twelve) is not along chronological lines. There are several books that are (chronologically speaking) out of order. Rearranging the books according to chronology is helpful in that we can see how the prophets built upon each other and developed thoughts introduced by those before them. Yet, the arrangement of the Twelve certainly seems to be purposeful in that the themes and thoughts that each individual prophet brings to the table complements the whole. The Hebrew audience knew the chronology of these books and yet arranged them in the same order as reflected in our English Bibles. One can only consider that this was done for a reason. Studying the chronology helps us understand the impact each individual prophet had upon his original audience. Studying the canonical order as preserved for us helps us understand the impact these prophets were to have on subsequent generations of readers.
The Thematic Context of Jonah
As part of the canon of Scripture, we assume and expect Jonah to not only contribute to the overarching biblical storyline but to further develop themes and expectations that have already been mentioned and established. While there are many such developments within the book of Jonah, we will focus primarily on three.
First, we must address the theme of judgment. As already established in the prophecies of Obadiah and Joel, we know that those nations who mistreat Israel will be likewise treated by Yhwh (Obad. v. 15). Yet, Israel and Judah cannot expect to escape unscathed while they refuse to repent and return to Yhwh (Joel 2:1-17). Thus, ”judgment” is understood in one of two ways: (1) wrathful punitive action or (2) loving discipline.
Second, the time for the northern kingdom of Israel’s judgment is drawing near. Yhwh clearly revealed to Jehu that his dynasty would consist of only four generations (2 Kings 10:30). While this promise is given as a reward for eradicating the line of Ahab, v. 30 is surrounded by condemnation of Jehu for maintaining the apostate cult established by Jeroboam I (2 Kings 10:29, 31). Thus, the four generation promise comes with an ominous ring. What will happen when those four generations are up? The implication is that Yhwh’s judgment will soon follow. Because Jeroboam II (the monarch of Jonah’s day) is the third generation since Jehu, there is a sense of looming doom overshadowing his supposed glorious reign.
Finally, it would be a horrible mistake to overlook the overarching theme of Scripture: the redemption of the world through the coming seed of the woman (Gen. 3:15). That seed has been promised to come through Abraham (Gen. 15), through Isaac (Gen. 26:1-5), and Jacob (Gen. 28:13-15). In other words, the seed will be an Israelite. Yet, this seed is expected to redeem not only Israel, but all the tribes of the world (Gen. 12:1-3). The part which Jonah is given to play in this grand scenario is as an Israelite sent to the nations. Jonah is a microcosm of (1) the role the nation was always intended to play and (2) the role that The Israelite (Messiah) will one day play. Another way of looking at Jonah is like this: In his stubborn rebellion, Jonah is a perfect picture of Israel as she is. As he is used by a sovereign and gracious God, Jonah is a type of the Israelite to come.
Major Themes
For such a short book, there are several themes that jump out at the reader, even if Jonah is approached somewhat casually. Recognizing and keeping track of these themes is helpful to see the book as a unified whole.
The Sovereignty of God
God’s purposeful hand over every detail of this narrative is so obvious that some mistake this for the purpose of the book. The storm upon the sea did not just happen, but God hurled a great wind upon the sea (1:4). The great fish did not just happen upon Jonah, but God appointed it (1:17). The fish did not just happen to have a case of indigestion, but God commanded it to spit Jonah out (2:10). The whole scene with the plant (4:6-8) again makes this point that God is in sovereign control of every aspect of the narrative.
The Compassion of God
With the sovereignty of God, one cannot help but read that God is a compassionate God. It is the hope of the captain that Jonah’s God is compassionate (1:6), which he and his crew indeed find out (1:15-16). Jonah assumes God’s compassion as he prays in the belly of the fish (2:2). This same compassion is the basis for God’s relenting of judgment upon Nineveh (3:10) as recognized by Jonah (4:2) and then explained to Jonah by God Himself (4:10-11).
“Greatness”
The Hebrew adjective גָּדֹל (great) appears no less than 14x in the book of Jonah. It is used to describe the “greatness” of Nineveh (1:2; 3:2, 3; 4:11), the wind of the storm (1:4, 12), the sailor’s fear (1:10, 16), the fish (1:17), the important people of Nineveh (3:6, 7), Jonah’s reaction to Yhwh’s mercy (4:1), and Jonah’s reaction to the plant (4:6). Though a short book, this is certainly a great book.
Repentance
Though it is strangely absent from Jonah’s message to the people of Nineveh, there remains a theme of repentance in this prophecy. The sum of Jonah’s prayer (2:1-9) consists of Jonah’s repentance. More overtly, the actions of the people of Nineveh as dictated by their king is supposed to convey repentance (3:5-6). Thus, there is not only a connection between God’s mercy and repentance but there is also a connection between the repentance of Israel (personified in Jonah) and the repentance of the nations. It is interesting that Jonah’s repentance does not seem to carry him very far. So much so, that one of the most troubling questions asked about Jonah’s prophecy is whether the prophet repented after his tantrum recorded in at the end.
The Disobedience of Israel
That Jonah represents the nation is assumed in that he desires Yhwh’s blessing on the one hand and yet runs from Yhwh’s explicit instructions on the other hand. While clearly used by Yhwh to accomplish His will, the prophet does so reluctantly and without much pleasure (1:3, 4:1, 9). Thus, Jonah is a perfect picture of Israel as she is. Therefore, Jonah must die. Yet, because Israel is a recipient of Yhwh’s covenant promise and will be a part of the redemption of the nations, Israel cannot die. Thus, Jonah is a typological picture of the true Israelite to come.
Purpose
In establishing the purpose of Jonah’s prophecy, one must consider all the above discussion rather than piecing together one’s favorite parts. For example, the inclusion of the nations is clearly part of Jonah’s purpose, but the book is more than that. One can say the same thing regarding the rebellion of Jonah/Israel, the sovereignty and compassion of God, etc. The key to discovering Jonah’s purpose is to realize that Jonah is only part of a larger whole. One interesting observation is that no matter if one arranges the Twelve chronologically or canonically, Jonah follows Obadiah and Joel. Obadiah promises God’s wrath on the nation that opposes God’s promised people. Joel promises restoration for God’s people and kingdom blessings upon their repentance. Jonah takes both concepts a step further by affirming (1) restoration is linked with repentance for all people and (2) the repentance of the nations comes through Israel thus (3) Israel must repent so that the world might be restored.
Literary Structure
Jonah is unlike any of the other writing prophets in that his prophecy is mostly narrative. It is not that the other prophets do not include biographical narrative in their work (Hos. 1:1-11; Amos 7:10-17), but of Jonah’s four chapters, three of them are narrative with only chapter 2 consisting of what one might expect of prophetic utterances. Thus, the book of Jonah tells a story consisting of four parts. Each part has a slightly different emphasis regarding who the narrative focuses on. While Jonah is always a key figure, the focus of chapter 1 is mostly on the sailors while the people of Nineveh steal the spotlight in chapter three. Thus, there is a neat four part division, each with its area of focus. Largely speaking, the English chapter divisions capture these four parts.
· Jonah Runs/Sailors Repent (1:1-16)
· Jonah Prays/ Yhwh Appoints (1:17-2:10)
· Jonah Returns/Nineveh Repents (3:1-10)
· Jonah Pouts/Yhwh Provides (4:1-11)
Yet, these observations may indicate a two-part division rather than four. The fact that the focus of chapters 1 and 3 are on Jonah’s Gentile audience while chapters 2 and 4 return to Jonah on an individual level seems to provide two mirrored halves. This suspicion is strengthened by the language of 3:1 as Yhwh reaffirms Jonah’s mission as given in 1:2. Thus, the book outlines as two halves, each half consisting of two main plot points.
· Jonah’s Rebellion and Repentance (1:1-2:10)
o Jonah’s Rebellion Leads to Gentile Repentance (1:1-16)
o Yhwh’s Judgment Leads to Jonah’s Repentance (1:17-2:10)
· Jonah’s Restoration and Rebellion (3:1-4:11)
o Jonah’s Restoration Leads to Gentile Repentance (3:1-10)
o Yhwh’s Compassion Explained to a Rebellious Jonah (4:1-11)